Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
The essential feature of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a persistent pattern of inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that interferes with functioning or development. Inattention manifests behaviorally in ADHD as wandering off task, failing to follow through on instructions or finishing work or chores, having difficulty sustaining focus, and being disorganized and is not attributable to defiance or lack of comprehension.
Hyperactivity refers to excessive motor activity (such as a child running about) when it is not appropriate, or excessive fidgeting, tapping, or talkativeness. In adults, hyperactivity may manifest as extreme restlessness or wearing others out with their activity. Impulsivity refers to hasty actions that occur in the moment without forethought, which may have potential for harm to the individual (e.g., darting into the street without looking).
Impulsivity may reflect a desire for immediate rewards or an inability to delay gratification. Impulsive behaviors may manifest as social intrusiveness (e.g., interrupting others excessively) and/or as making important decisions without consideration of long-term consequences (e.g., taking a job without adequate information).
ADHD begins in childhood. The requirement that several symptoms be present before age 12 years conveys the importance of a substantial clinical presentation during childhood. At the same time, an earlier age at onset is not specified because of difficulties in establishing precise childhood onset retrospectively. Adult recall of childhood symptoms tends to be unreliable, and it is beneficial to obtain ancillary information. ADHD cannot be diagnosed in the absence of any symptoms prior to age 12. When symptoms of what appears to be ADHD first occur after age 13, they are more likely to be explained by another mental disorder or to represent the cognitive effects of substance use.
Hyperactivity refers to excessive motor activity (such as a child running about) when it is not appropriate, or excessive fidgeting, tapping, or talkativeness. In adults, hyperactivity may manifest as extreme restlessness or wearing others out with their activity. Impulsivity refers to hasty actions that occur in the moment without forethought, which may have potential for harm to the individual (e.g., darting into the street without looking).
Impulsivity may reflect a desire for immediate rewards or an inability to delay gratification. Impulsive behaviors may manifest as social intrusiveness (e.g., interrupting others excessively) and/or as making important decisions without consideration of long-term consequences (e.g., taking a job without adequate information).
ADHD begins in childhood. The requirement that several symptoms be present before age 12 years conveys the importance of a substantial clinical presentation during childhood. At the same time, an earlier age at onset is not specified because of difficulties in establishing precise childhood onset retrospectively. Adult recall of childhood symptoms tends to be unreliable, and it is beneficial to obtain ancillary information. ADHD cannot be diagnosed in the absence of any symptoms prior to age 12. When symptoms of what appears to be ADHD first occur after age 13, they are more likely to be explained by another mental disorder or to represent the cognitive effects of substance use.
Manifestations of the disorder must be present in more than one setting (e.g., home and school, or home and work). Confirmation of substantial symptoms across settings typically cannot be done accurately without consulting informants who have seen the individual in those settings. Typically, symptoms vary depending on context within a given setting. Signs of the disorder may be minimal or absent when the individual is receiving frequent rewards for appropriate behavior, is under close supervision, is in a novel setting, is engaged in especially interesting activities, has consistent external stimulation (e.g., via electronic screens), or is interacting in one-on-one situations (e.g., the clinician's office).
Delays in language, motor, or social development are not specific to ADHD but often co-occur. Emotional dysregulation or emotional impulsivity commonly occurs in children and adults with ADHD. Individuals with ADHD self-report and are described by others as being quick to anger, easily frustrated, and overreactive emotionally. Even in the absence of a specific learning disorder, academic or work performance is often impaired. Individuals with ADHD may exhibit neurocognitive deficits in a variety of areas, including working memory, set shifting, reaction time variability, response inhibition, vigilance, and planning/organization, although these tests are not sufficiently sensitive or specific to serve as diagnostic indices.
Although ADHD is not associated with specific physical features, rates of minor physical anomalies (e.g., hypertelorism, highly arched palate, lowset ears) may be elevated. Subtle motor delays and other neurological soft signs may occur. (Note that marked co-occurring clumsiness and motor delays should be coded separately [e.g., developmental coordination disorder].) Children with neurodevelopmental disorders with a known cause (e.g., fragile X syndrome, 22q11 deletion syndrome) may often also have symptoms of inattention and impulsivity/hyperactivity; they should receive an ADHD diagnosis if their symptoms meet the full criteria for the disorder.
Population surveys suggest that ADHD occurs worldwide in about 7.2% of children; however, cross-national prevalence ranges widely, from 0.1% to 10.2% of children and adolescents. Prevalence is higher in special populations such as foster children or correctional settings. In a crossnational meta-analysis, ADHD occurred in 2.5% of adults.
Many parents first observe excessive motor activity when the child is a toddler, but symptoms are difficult to distinguish from highly variable normative behaviors before age 4 years. ADHD is most often identified during elementary school years when inattention becomes more prominent and impairing. The disorder is relatively stable through early adolescence, but some individuals have a worsened course with development of antisocial behaviors. In most individuals with ADHD, symptoms of motoric hyperactivity become less obvious in adolescence and adulthood, but difficulties with restlessness, inattention, poor planning, and impulsivity persist. A substantial proportion of children with ADHD remain relatively impaired into adulthood. In preschool, the main manifestation is hyperactivity. Inattention becomes more prominent during elementary school. During adolescence, signs of hyperactivity (e.g., running and climbing) are less common and may be confined to fidgetiness or an inner feeling of jitteriness, restlessness, or impatience. In adulthood, along with inattention and restlessness, impulsivity may remain problematic even when hyperactivity has diminished.
Delays in language, motor, or social development are not specific to ADHD but often co-occur. Emotional dysregulation or emotional impulsivity commonly occurs in children and adults with ADHD. Individuals with ADHD self-report and are described by others as being quick to anger, easily frustrated, and overreactive emotionally. Even in the absence of a specific learning disorder, academic or work performance is often impaired. Individuals with ADHD may exhibit neurocognitive deficits in a variety of areas, including working memory, set shifting, reaction time variability, response inhibition, vigilance, and planning/organization, although these tests are not sufficiently sensitive or specific to serve as diagnostic indices.
Although ADHD is not associated with specific physical features, rates of minor physical anomalies (e.g., hypertelorism, highly arched palate, lowset ears) may be elevated. Subtle motor delays and other neurological soft signs may occur. (Note that marked co-occurring clumsiness and motor delays should be coded separately [e.g., developmental coordination disorder].) Children with neurodevelopmental disorders with a known cause (e.g., fragile X syndrome, 22q11 deletion syndrome) may often also have symptoms of inattention and impulsivity/hyperactivity; they should receive an ADHD diagnosis if their symptoms meet the full criteria for the disorder.
Population surveys suggest that ADHD occurs worldwide in about 7.2% of children; however, cross-national prevalence ranges widely, from 0.1% to 10.2% of children and adolescents. Prevalence is higher in special populations such as foster children or correctional settings. In a crossnational meta-analysis, ADHD occurred in 2.5% of adults.
Many parents first observe excessive motor activity when the child is a toddler, but symptoms are difficult to distinguish from highly variable normative behaviors before age 4 years. ADHD is most often identified during elementary school years when inattention becomes more prominent and impairing. The disorder is relatively stable through early adolescence, but some individuals have a worsened course with development of antisocial behaviors. In most individuals with ADHD, symptoms of motoric hyperactivity become less obvious in adolescence and adulthood, but difficulties with restlessness, inattention, poor planning, and impulsivity persist. A substantial proportion of children with ADHD remain relatively impaired into adulthood. In preschool, the main manifestation is hyperactivity. Inattention becomes more prominent during elementary school. During adolescence, signs of hyperactivity (e.g., running and climbing) are less common and may be confined to fidgetiness or an inner feeling of jitteriness, restlessness, or impatience. In adulthood, along with inattention and restlessness, impulsivity may remain problematic even when hyperactivity has diminished.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
Inattentive Type
A person with this type must have at least six of these nine symptoms, and very few of the symptoms of hyperactive-impulsive type:
• Not paying attention to detail
• Making careless mistakes
• Failing to pay attention and keep on task
• Not listening
• Being unable to follow or understand instructions
• Avoiding tasks that involve effort
• Being distracted
• Being forgetful
• Losing things that are needed to complete tasks
Hyperactive-Impulsive Type
To have this type, a person has to have at least six of these nine symptoms, and very few of the symptoms of inattentive type:
• Fidgeting
• Squirming
• Getting up often when seated
• Running or climbing at inappropriate times
• Having trouble playing quietly
• Talking too much
• Talking out of turn or blurting out
• Interrupting
• Often “on the go” as if “driven by a motor”
Combined Presentation
Symptoms of the above two types are equally present in the person.
A person with this type must have at least six of these nine symptoms, and very few of the symptoms of hyperactive-impulsive type:
• Not paying attention to detail
• Making careless mistakes
• Failing to pay attention and keep on task
• Not listening
• Being unable to follow or understand instructions
• Avoiding tasks that involve effort
• Being distracted
• Being forgetful
• Losing things that are needed to complete tasks
Hyperactive-Impulsive Type
To have this type, a person has to have at least six of these nine symptoms, and very few of the symptoms of inattentive type:
• Fidgeting
• Squirming
• Getting up often when seated
• Running or climbing at inappropriate times
• Having trouble playing quietly
• Talking too much
• Talking out of turn or blurting out
• Interrupting
• Often “on the go” as if “driven by a motor”
Combined Presentation
Symptoms of the above two types are equally present in the person.